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About this resource viii
Acknowledgements x
Unit 3 How Can Chemical Processes Be Designed to Optimise Efficiency? 1
Area of Study 1 What are the Options for Energy Production?
1 Obtaining energy from fuels 3
1.1 Overview 3
1.2 Fossil fuels and biofuels 4
1.3 Combustion of fuels 12
1.4 Thermochemical equations 21
1.5 Gaseous fuels and the universal gas equation 29
1.6 Calculations related to the combustion of fuels 38
1.7 Calculating heat energy using the specific heat capacity of water 44
1.8 Review 47
2 Fuel choices 59
2.1 Overview 59
2.2 Comparing energy sources 60
2.3 Suitability of fuels for transport 65
2.4 Review 69
3 Galvanic cells as a source of energy 73
3.1 Overview 73
3.2 Redox reactions and half-equations 74
3.3 Galvanic cells. 83
3.4 The electrochemical series 89
3.5 Review 103
4 Fuel cells as a source of energy 113
4.1 Overview 113
4.2 Fuel cells 114
4.3 Review 124
Area of Study 1 Review
Practice examination 129
Practice school-assessed coursework 135
Area of Study 2 How Can Yield of Processes Be Optimised?
5 Rate of chemical reactions 136
5.1 Overview 136
5.2 How does a chemical reaction occur? 137
5.3 Exothermic and endothermic reactions 141
5.4 Factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction 145
5.5 Catalysts and reaction rates 148
5.6 Review 151
6 Extent of chemical reactions 159
6.1 Overview 159
6.2 Reversible and irreversible reactions 160
6.3 Homogenous equilibria 162
6.4 Calculations involving equilibrium systems 168
6.5 Measuring the efficiency of a reaction or process 178
6.6 Le Châtelier’s principle 181
6.7 Review 196
7 Production of chemicals by electrolysis and rechargeable batteries 206
7.1 Overview 206
7.2 What is electrolysis? 207
7.3 Predicting reactions that occur during electrolysis 212
7.4 Commercial applications of electrolysis 220
7.5 Comparing galvanic and electrolytic cells. 225
7.6 Calculations in electrolysis using Faraday’s Laws 227
7.7 Rechargeable batteries (secondary cells) 235
7.8 Review 240
Area of Study 2 Review
Practice examination 250
Practice school-assessed coursework 255
Unit 4 How are Organic Compounds Categorised, Analysed and Used? 257
Area of Study 1 How Can Organic Compounds Be Categorised?
8 Structure and nomenclature of organic compounds 259
8.1 Overview 259
8.2 The carbon atom. 260
8.3 Structure and naming of organic compounds 264
8.4 Functional groups and naming priority 281
8.5 Isomers 285
8.6 Review 291
9 Categories, properties and reactions of organic compounds 300
9.1 Overview 300
9.2 Explaining trends in physical properties 301
9.3 Organic reactions 309
9.4 Reaction pathways 318
9.5 Review 323
10 Analysis of organic compounds 331
10.1 Overview 331
10.2 Mass spectrometry 332
10.3 Infrared spectroscopy 338
10.4 NMR spectroscopy 345
10.5 Combining spectroscopic techniques 354
10.6 Chromatography 358
10.7 Volumetric analysis by titration 365
10.8 Review 375
Practice examination 386
Practice school-assessed coursework 392
Area of Study 2 What is the Chemistry of Food?
11 Key food molecules 396
11.1 Overview 396
11.2 Proteins 397
11.3 Carbohydrates 410
11.4 Fats and oils 419
11.5 Vitamins 425
11.6 Review 429
12 Metabolism of food in the human body 438
12.1 Overview 438
12.2 Metabolism of food 439
12.3 Enzymes as protein catalysts 442
12.4 Denaturation and hydrolysis of proteins 451
12.5 Carbohydrates 454
12.6 Fats and oils 460
12.7 Coenzymes 463
12.8 Review 466
13 Energy content of food 474
13.1 Overview 474
13.2 Energy values of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and oils 475
13.3 Glucosethe primary energy source 478
13.4 Principles of calorimetry 480
13.5 Review 491
Practice examination 499
Practice school-assessed coursework 504
14 Practical investigation 506
14.1 Overview 506
14.2 Key science skills in chemistry 507
14.3 Concepts specific to investigations 517
14.4 Scientific research methodologies and techniques 521
14.5 Ethics, and health and safety guidelines 533
14.6 Methods of organising, analysing and evaluating primary data 537
14.7 Models and theories to understand observed phenomena 549
14.8 Nature of evidence and key findings of investigations 552
14.9 Conventions of scientific report writing and scientific poster presentation 553
14.10 Review 564
Answers 574
Glossary 625
Index 635
Periodic table of the elements 642